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أول سؤال
Define the term " programming language"?
What the example of programming languages?
what is sample codes?
how programming languages have develop over the year?
what is the software development life cycle?

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[BATLI]

http://www.kutub.info/library
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[ZainabOmar85]

Define the term " programming language"?
programming language : a language capable of expressing any computer programs for the execution or de******ion of algorithms and solve any function which is computable.


In brief, a programming language is a notation for writing software. The main purpose of a programming language is to help in the construction of a reliable software.


All programming languages are equivalent in terms of theoretical power, but differ in their practical power for solving a given problem.

[ZainabOmar85]

What the example of programming languages?
1. C++
2. Pascal
3. Delphi
4. Basic
5. Visual Basic
6. Lisp
7. Prolog
8. Eiffel
9. Fortran
10. Algol
11. Algol 60
12. Algol W
13. Cobol
14. Ada
15. Modula-2
16. Simula

[ZainabOmar85]

what is sample codes?
1. Pascal
Program mainprog(input, output);
var x, y: Real;
procedure inner1;
var y, z: Integer;
begin
. . . .
y := 34;
x := 27.5;
. . . .
end {inner1}
begin
. . . .
x := 3.76;
y :=x;
. . . .
end {mainprog}
2. Java
class mainprog
{
private double* x, y;
public void inner1( )
{
int y, z;
y := 34;
Z : = 27.5;
. . . .
} // inner1
public void inner2 ( )
{
x : = 3.67;
y := x;
. . . .
} // inner2
} // mainprog
3. C++
# include <iostream.h>
void a(void);
void b(void);
void c(void);
int x = 1;

int main ()
{
int x = 5;
cout<<" x =* "<<x<<endl;
{
int x = 7;
cout<<" *x =* "<<x<<endl;
}
cout<<" *x =* "<<x<<endl;
a( ); b( ); c( ); a( ); b( ); c( );
return 0;
}
void a(void)
{
int x=25;
cout<<" *x =* "<<x<<endl;
++x;
cout<<" *x = *"<<x<<endl;
}

void b(void)
{
static int x = 50;
cout<<" *x = "<<x<<endl;
++x;
cout<<" *x =* "<<x<<endl;
}

void c(void)
{
cout<<" *x = *"<<x<<endl;
x *=10;
cout<<" *x = *"<<x<<endl;
}
4. Ada
package*** Days** is
type** Day** is *(sun, mon, tues, wed, thurs, fri, sat);
function*** next_day (today* :* Day)** return* Day;
function*** day_before (today* :* Day)** return* Day;
end*** Days;

package body** Days* is
function*** next_day (today* :* Day)** return* Day** is
begin
if** today* =* sat* then
return* sun;
else
return* Day'succ(today);
end if;
end* next_day;
function*** day_before (today* :* Day)** return* Day* is
begin
if** today* =* sun* then
return* sat;
else
return* Day'pred(today);
end if;
end* day_before;
end* Days;

[ZainabOmar85]

what is sample codes?
1. Pascal
Program mainprog(input, output);
var x, y: Real;
procedure inner1;
var y, z: Integer;
begin
. . . .
y := 34;
x := 27.5;
. . . .
end {inner1}
begin
. . . .
x := 3.76;
y :=x;
. . . .
end {mainprog}
2. Java
class mainprog
{
private double* x, y;
public void inner1( )
{
int y, z;
y := 34;
Z : = 27.5;
. . . .
} // inner1
public void inner2 ( )
{
x : = 3.67;
y := x;
. . . .
} // inner2
} // mainprog
3. C++
# include <iostream.h>
void a(void);
void b(void);
void c(void);
int x = 1;

int main ()
{
int x = 5;
cout<<" x =* "<<x<<endl;
{
int x = 7;
cout<<" *x =* "<<x<<endl;
}
cout<<" *x =* "<<x<<endl;
a( ); b( ); c( ); a( ); b( ); c( );
return 0;
}
void a(void)
{
int x=25;
cout<<" *x =* "<<x<<endl;
++x;
cout<<" *x = *"<<x<<endl;
}

void b(void)
{
static int x = 50;
cout<<" *x = "<<x<<endl;
++x;
cout<<" *x =* "<<x<<endl;
}

void c(void)
{
cout<<" *x = *"<<x<<endl;
x *=10;
cout<<" *x = *"<<x<<endl;
}
4. Ada
package*** Days** is
type** Day** is *(sun, mon, tues, wed, thurs, fri, sat);
function*** next_day (today* :* Day)** return* Day;
function*** day_before (today* :* Day)** return* Day;
end*** Days;

package body** Days* is
function*** next_day (today* :* Day)** return* Day** is
begin
if** today* =* sat* then
return* sun;
else
return* Day'succ(today);
end if;
end* next_day;
function*** day_before (today* :* Day)** return* Day* is
begin
if** today* =* sun* then
return* sat;
else
return* Day'pred(today);
end if;
end* day_before;
end* Days;

[ZainabOmar85]

how programming languages have develop over the year?

Early machines (late 1940s)
Early languages called "order codes", very primitive.
Used numbers to store memory location, registers and operations.
No floating points, loops were very far from the modern "For" loops.
Hard to learn, difficult to use and full of errors.


Fortran (mid 1950s)
IBM mathematical Formula Translation.
the first manual for Fortran-I was released in 1956.
1958 the first successful compilers were running programs correctly.
designed for scientific calculations.
string handling facilities were not exist, the only data structure was the array.
Fortran Features
Comments
Assignment statements that allowed mathematical expressions
Loops using Do statements (simplicity)
Variables may declared implicitly or explicitly
The size of the array has to be fixed
Using Subroutines and Functions [in a symbolic notation close to mathematics]
Format for input & output
Machine independence: a Fortran program can run on different machines.
Fortran Success
Efficient use of programmer time
Easy to learn (for non-specialist programmers)
Supported by IBM
When was introduced, most applications and users were scientific.
Simplified several tedious areas of computing such as input & output.
Fortran Development
Start without standard
Fortran I
Fortran II
Fortran66 (developed standard by ANSI )
Fortran77
Fortran90 (many new features but accept all in 77)


Algol (late1950)
Emerged from a joint of European and American programmers
Short for Algorithmic Language
Added so much to PL theory.
Language objectives
It should be close as possible to standard mathematical notation (easy to read)
It should be possible to use it for the de******ion of computing processes in publication
It should be mechanically translatable into machine code.
Major concepts introduced by Algol 60 were:
Language definition: a formal language (grammar) was used to define the syntax for the first time, that led to the syntax-directed compilers
It was structured: block-structure; variables not visible outside the block where declared
Array could have variable bounds at compile time (fixed at run time-unlike Fortran) [ also no implicit declarations]
Contained several structure control statements (if, for)
First language that introduced recursion using recursive procedures.
Why Algol 60 was unable to supersede Fortran?
Algol 60 came out 3 years later
Harder to learn (had more features)
IBM supported Fortran
Fortran compilers was simpler and produce more efficient code than Algol compilers
Algol 60 had no official input/output operations. (left to individual manufacturers to tailor it too their computers)
Algol Development
Algol 58 (never implemented)
Algol 60 (the most important)
Algol W (by Wirth 1966) added many new features, such as:
Records: allowed new data structures (Linked list, tree and graph)
Case statement
Changes which separated (For & While)
Long real and Complex data types
Some string facilities
Algol 68 - not widely available – but the best points was:
An economy of constructs: (small powerful number) orthogonality


Pascal (late 1960s)
Developed by Wirth on top of Algol W
The aim was to produce a language that could be implemented on most computer and suitable for teaching
Adopted the static array (as Fortran)
Includes features that encourage well-written and well-structured programs
During 1980s it had become the dominant teaching language in most US universities. (because of a need for a language that provide a comprehensive set of data structure and a good programming style)

[ZainabOmar85]

how programming languages have develop over the year?

Languages Generations
Programming languages may be classified by their generation
1st* Generation: machine codes
2nd Generation: symbolic assemblers
3rd Generation : high-level languages (Fortran, Cobol, Pascal…) -independent from particular computer hardware
4th Generation: developed as a result of dissatisfaction of business users (non-prof. programmers) with large languages like Cobol.

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