الرجاء من كل مشاهد العنوان يدخل [الأرشيف]

scorpionking4999

11-21-2006, 10:02 PM

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أولا نبذة عن تاريخ الاندلس
) was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims from 711 to 1492.[1] It refers to the Governorate, Emirate (ca 750-929) and Caliphate of Córdoba (929-1031) and its taifa successor kingdoms.

In 1236 the Christian Reconquista led to the reconquering of the last Islamic stronghold of Granada under Mohammed ibn Alhamar to the Christian forces of Ferdinand III of Castile. From there on Granada became a vassal state to the Christian kingdom for the next 250 years until January 2, 1492 when the last Muslim leader Boabdil of Granada surrendered complete control of the remnants of the last Moorish stronghold Granada, to Ferdinand and Isabella, Los Reyes Católicos ("The Catholic Monarchs"). The Portuguese Reconquista culminated in 1249 with the reconquering of Algarve by Afonso III.

As Iberia was slowly regained by Christians fighting from northern enclaves, in the long process known as the Reconquista, the name Al-Andalus came to refer to the Muslim-dominated lands of the former Roman Hispania Baetica, Hispania Lusitania, and Hispania Tarraconensis, within an ever-southward-moving frontier. See also Andalusia and Andalusia
2- ما قبل غزو الاندلس
[edit] Conquest and early years
Prior to the arrival of the Moors, the Visigothic rivals of King Roderic had gathered along with Arians and Jews fleeing forced conversions at the hands of the Catholic bishops who controlled the Visigothic monarchy. The Egyptian historian Ibn Abd-el-Hakem relates that Roderic's vassal, Julian, count of Ceuta had sent one of his daughters to the Visigothic court at Toledo for education and that Roderic had impregnated her. After learning of this, he made his way to Qayrawan (modern days Tunisia) and requested the assistance of Musa ibn Nusayr, the Muslim governor in North Africa. Personal power politics may have played a larger part, as Julian and other notable families were extremely discontented with the existing status quo in the Visigothic kingdom. In exchange for lands in Andalus, Julian promised ships to carry Ibn Nusayr's troops across the Strait of Hercules (Strait of Gibraltar).

Main article: Moorish invasion of Iberia.
Under the command of Tariq ibn-Ziyad, a small force landed at Gibraltar on April 30, 711 . After a decisive victory at the Battle of Guadalete on July 19, 711, Tariq ibn-Ziyad brought most of the Iberian Peninsula under Muslim occupation in a seven-year campaign. They moved northeast across the Pyrenees but were defeated by the Frank Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers in 732. Modern historians argue that the Battle of Poitiers was a victory over raiders, not conquerors. Though there was a Muslim presence north of the Pyrenees, further northward expeditions aimed for looting, not conquering[citation needed]. The Iberian peninsula, except for the Kingdom of Asturias, became part of the expanding Umayyad empire, under the name of al-Andalus. In the Archaeological Museum in Madrid, a dinar dating from five years after the conquest (716), has the Arabic al-Andalus on one side and the Iberian Latin "Span(ica)" on the other — apparently the first mention known.

At first, al-Andalus was ruled by governors appointed by the Caliph, most ruling for three years or less. However, from 740, a series of civil wars between various Muslim groups in Spain resulted in the breakdown of Caliphal control, with Yūsuf al-Fihri, who emerged as the main winner, being effectively an independent ruler.

3- عصر الخلافة فى قرطبة
When the Umayyad dynasty gave way to the Abbasid in 750, Abd al-Rahman I (later titled Al-Dāakhil), an Umayyad exile, established himself as the Emir of Córdoba in 756, ousting Yūsuf al-Fihri. Over a thirty-year reign, he established his rule over the whole of al-Andalus, overcoming partisans both of the al-Fihri family and of the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad, whose title he refused to acknowledge. For the next century and a half, his descendants continued as emirs of Córdoba, with nominal control over the rest of al-Andalus (and sometimes parts of western North Africa) but with real control, particularly over the marches along the Christian border, varying greatly depending on the competence of the individual emir. Indeed, Abdallah ibn Muhammad, who was emir around 900, had very little control beyond the area immediately around Córdoba.

However, Abdallah's grandson Abd-al-Rahman III, who succeeded him in 912, not only rapidly restored Ummayad power throughout al-Andalus but extended it into western North Africa as well. In 929 he proclaimed himself Caliph, elevating the emirate to a position competing in prestige not only with the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad but also the Shi'ite Caliph in Tunis — with whom he was competing for control of North Africa.

The period of the Caliphate can reasonably be regarded as the golden age of al-Andalus. Irrigation techniques and crops – for instance, rice, oranges and a variety of other citrus fruits – imported from the Middle East provided the area around Córdoba and some other Andalusī cities with an agricultural infrastructure well in advance of that of any other part of western Europe. Córdoba under the Caliphate, with a population of perhaps 500,000, was far larger and more prosperous than any other city of the time in Europe, with the exception of Constantinople, and competed on at least equal terms as a cultural centre with anywhere else in the Islamic world. The work of its philosophers and scientists would be a significant formative influence on the intellectual life of medieval western Europe.

Muslims and non-Muslims often came from abroad to study in the famous libraries and universities of al-Andalus. The most noted of these was Michael Scot, who took Ibn Rushd's (Averroes') works, and his commentaries on many of Aristotle's works as well as the works of Ibn Sina (Avicenna) to Italy. This event was to have a significant impact on the formation of the European Renaissance.

4- عصر ملوك الطوائف ( أول طائفة ) .
The Córdoba Caliphate effectively collapsed during a ruinous civil war between 1009 and 1013, although it was not finally abolished until 1031. Al-Andalus now broke up into a number of mostly independent states called taifas. These were however militarily too weak to defend themselves against repeated raids and demands for tribute from the Christian states based in the north and west, which had already spread from their initial strongholds in Galicia, Asturias, the Basque country and the Carolingian Marca Hispanica to become the Kingdoms of Navarre, León, Portugal, Castile and Aragon and the County of Barcelona. Eventually, raids turned into conquest, and in response, the taifa kings requested help from the Almoravids, the fundamentalist-Islamic rulers of the Maghreb. However, the Almoravids conquered the taifa kingdoms after defeating the Castilian King Alfonso VI at the battles of Zallāqah and Uclés.

المرابطين و الموحدين حاكموا المغرب العربى و الذين بسطوا نفوذهم على الاندلس :
[edit] Almoravids, Almohads and Marinids
In 1086 the Almoravid ruler of Morocco Yusuf ibn Tashfin was invited by the Muslim princes in Spain to defend them against Alfonso VI, King of Castile and León. In that year, Yusuf ibn Tashfin passed the straits to Algeciras, inflicted a severe defeat on the Christians at the az-Zallaqah. By 1094, Yusuf ibn Tashfin had removed all Muslim princes in Spain and annexed their states, except for the one at Zaragoza. From the Christians he regained Valencia.

The Almoravids were succeeded in the 12th century by the Almohads, another Berber dynasty, after the defeat of the Castilian Alfonso VIII at the Battle of Alarcos. In 1212 a coalition of Christian kings under the leadership of the Castilian Alfonso VIII defeated the Almohads at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa and forced their Sultan to leave Spain. Once the Almohads were gone (though they survived in Morocco until 1269) the again independent but weakened Taifas were quickly conquered by Portugal, Castile and Aragon. After the fall of Murcia (1243) and the Algarve (1249), only the Kingdom of Granada survived as a Muslim state, but was forced to pay tribute to Castile. Most of this tribute was gold from present-day Mali and Burkina Faso that was carried to Spain through the merchant routes of the Sahara.

The last Muslim threat to the Christian kingdoms was the rise of the Marinids in Morocco during the 14th century, who put Granada under their sphere of influence and conquered some cities like Algeciras. However, they were unable to take Tarifa, that resisted until the arrival of the Castilian Army led by Alfonso XI. The Castilian king, helped by Afonso IV of Portugal and Pedro IV of Aragon, decisively defeated the Marinids at the Battle of Salado in 1340 and took Algeciras in 1344. Gibraltar, then under Granadian rule, was put under siege in 1349 -1350, but most of the Castilian forces and their king were killed by the Black Death. The successor of Alfonso XI, Pedro of Castile, signed a peace with the Muslims and turned his attention to Christian lands, starting a period of almost 150 years of rebellions and wars between the Christian states that secured the survival of Granada.

امارة غرناطة أخر أمارات الاندلس و اخر من حكم من العرب فى الاندلس
Granada survived for three more centuries as an independent state. The Muslims were guaranteed virtual self-government, freedom of movement, complete religious freedom and even a three-year exemption from taxes after the surrender. After that they were to pay no more than they had under Nasrid rule. In 1469 the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile signaled the last assault on Granada, a campaign carefully planned and well financed. The King and Queen convinced the Pope to declare their war a Crusade. The Christians crushed one center of resistance after another and finally, in January 1492, after a long siege, the Moorish king of Gharnatah (Granada), Muhammad abu Abdallah, surrendered the fortress palace of Alhambra itself.

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